7 Reasons to Enroll a Child in an Online Elementary School

Every year, hundreds of parents pull their kids out of traditional schools and enroll them in virtual programs. How do online elementary schools benefit children and their families? Why are parents so eager to remove their kids from the system that has worked for decades? Here are some of the most common reasons: 1. An online school gives kids the freedom to work on developing their passions. Two decades ago, primary school children were given little no homework. Now, students often return from school with hours of worksheets, drills, and assignments to complete. Many parents complain that students aren’t given the opportunity to focus on their own talents: learning an instrument, experimenting with science, or mastering a sport. Parents of online students often find that students are able to complete their assignments faster when they don’t have the distraction of peers to hold them back. Many online students are able to finish their coursework in the early afternoon, leaving many hours for kids to develop their own passions.​ 2. Online schools allow kids to get away from bad situations. Difficult situations with bullying, bad teaching, or a questionable curriculum may make school a struggle. Parents certainly don’t want to teach their kids to run away from a bad situation. However, some parents find that enrolling their child in an online school can be good for both their learning and their emotional health. 3. Families are able to spend more time together after enrolling their kids in online school. Hours of class, after-school tutoring, and extracurricular activities are leaving many families with no time to spend together (aside from homework tantrums). Online schooling lets kids complete their studies and still spend quality time with their loved ones. 4. Many online schools help kids work at their own pace. One of the drawbacks of traditional classrooms is that teachers must design their instruction to meet the needs of the students in the center. If your child is struggling to understand a concept, he may be left behind. Likewise, if your child is unchallenged, he may have to sit bored and uninspired for hours while the rest of the class catches up. Not all online schools let students work at their own pace, but a growing number provide students with the flexibility to get extra help when they need it or move ahead when they don’t. 5. Online schools help students to develop independence. By their nature, online schools require students to develop the independence to work on their own and the responsibility to complete assignments by the deadline. Not all students are up for the challenge, but kids that develop these skills will be better prepared for completing further education and joining the workforce. 6. Online schools help students develop technology skills. Technology skills are essential in almost every field and there’s no way for students to learn online without developing at least some of these essential abilities. Online learners tend to become proficient with internet communication, learning management programs, word processors, and online conferencing. 7. Families have a greater educational choice when they are able to consider online schools. Many families feel like they are stuck with few educational options. There may be only a handful of public and private schools within driving distance (or, for rural families, there may only be a single school). Online schools open up an entirely new set of choices for concerned parents. Families can choose from state-run online schools, more independent virtual charter schools, and online private schools. There are schools designed for young actors, gifted learners, struggling students, and more. Not all schools will break the bank, either. Publicly-funded online schools allow students to learn without charge. They may even provide resources like laptop computers, learning supplies, and internet access.

A Culture of Corruption Everyday Deception and Popular...

Daniel Jordan Smith presents an outstanding work full of insight and appreciation of Nigerian culture. The content is enriched by his years spent working there, his marriage to a Nigerian woman and his obvious affinity for the Nigerian people. Smith’s primary aim is to reflect upon popular Nigerian sentiment toward corruption but also to explore just how entrenched corrupt practices have become in society. The book focuses on two main elements; how Nigeria is as much a ‘culture of corruption’ as it is ‘against corruption’ (p. 6). The standard discourse that exists between Nigerians themselves as well as the rest of the world is that Nigeria has a history of debilitating corruption. Smith’s work is therefore appealing to a variety of†¦show more content†¦This is centred round the ‘moral economy’ of corruption (Olivier de Sardan, 1999). This concept refers to the practice of corruption justified by its perpetrators for reasons relating to cultural values; in ways that are not stigmatised or even deemed corrupt (Olivier de Sardan, 1999). An interesting term he utilises is the ‘idiom of accountability’ that explains the rise of popular discontent suggested by the title (p. 19). Smith regularly emphasises how traditional ideals of patron-clientism are considered the most important idiom of accountability left in a society spiralling out of control. ‘String pulling’ by patrons to assist friends and relatives is considered legitimate, to act otherwise would be c onsidered immoral (p. 17). While this is undoubtedly true, Smith overemphasises this point to the extent that the reader is left wondering if this is too simple an explanation for ambivalence. If this behaviour is the general consensus for both regular Nigerians as well as the political elite, the next section of the book unpacks how the public are becoming increasingly critical of their politicians. As Smith suggests patron-clientism is embedded in Nigerian society and so it appears nobody is spared from participating in it. The author himself used his connections to get his niece into a good school. Discontent is aggravated when modern bureaucracy meets traditional patron-clientism for the sole purposes of increasing one’s personal wealth. No longer operatingShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesBehavior 271 Understanding Work Teams 307 Communication 335 Leadership 367 Power and Politics 411 Conflict and Negotiation 445 Foundations of Organization Structure 479 v vi BRIEF CONTENTS 4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management 577 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 616 623 Contents Preface xxii 1 1 Read MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesPublic Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Gerda Lerner, Fireweed: A Political

Byte Products free essay sample

In this case study, the situation Byte is facing is that their production facilities are operating at 100% capacity. Byte has three facilities in the United States and they are all running three 8 hr. shifts, 24 hours a day. Since demand for the products is so high, Byte has an immediate need to increase production but lacks the physical space to do so. This is a serious problem because other companies, both domestic and international, have been entering the market due to the high profit margin and consumer demand. Lack of available products from Byte will leave their loyal buyers no other choice but to entertain these new manufacturers. The C. E. O. and Chairman of the Board of Byte Products, James Elliot has addressed this problem by proposing the construction of a new production plant in the Southwest United States which once in operation will bill able to produce enough to keep up with the current demand. Unfortunately the new plant will take three years to build and if Byte is unable to supply enough product they will lose their hold on the market and other companies will step in to satisfy demand. Mr. Elliot has heard various suggestions from staff specialists on how to address this shortage of product. Byte could license production of their products to another company in the U. S. but premium charged to them to cover the overhead costs would increase the price of the product and they would lose customers. Another option would be to license their products overseas where manufacturing and overhead costs are much cheaper, When the company was was established, the founding members agreed to keep manufacturing in the United States and the shareholders believe this policy has been an asset. Licensing production overseas would enable others companies to reproduce there efficient production methods as well as leave them vulnerable to patent infringement. Any licensing of Byte’s production would not guarantee quality control and adherence to their standards. The only other option favorable to Mr. Elliot was the temporary leasing of another facility until the construction of the new plant is finished. The empty facility, located in the northeast U. S. could be inexpensively leased but would need three months for renovation. Unfortunately it has been determined that this facility will never be profitable due to inefficient production, high union labor costs and warehousing and transportation issues. Temporarily though using it for additional production would alleviate the supply shortage. Mr. Elliot feels this is their best option and will present it to the Board at the next meeting. Things do not go as well as he expected when outside director on the board opposes his solution on the premise that it is unethical to set up a temporary plant and disrupt a community. His arguments surprise and sway members of the board and he tells Mr. Elliot he feel there is no compromising using this temporary facility. Based on the facts of this case study, I feel that Byte management was lacking strategic planning for the future. If sales have consistently increased for the last six years, there should have been a plan put into place at least five years ago to address increased supply demands. Obviously the board and the shareholders were happy that the company was profitable but they did not plan for what was necessary to support future sales. The C. E. O. who was also on the board is doubly at fault for not doing the same. He should have presented a strategic plan to the board and they should have reviewed it. Corporate governance is one main issue in this case because a board of directors has a responsibility to the shareholders to oversee the activities of the corporation and to insure they are protected as well as to maximize profits. There is a conflict of interest when the C. E. O. is also the chairman of the board because the board may feel pressured to always go along with what the C. E. O. says. In this case it seems that neither the C. E. O. nor the board had a plan to deal with increased production needs. I think that Byte’s situation should have been addressed initially at the Evaluation and Control step of the strategic management model. They were obviously tracking their increased sales but where was the evaluation of how those numbers affected their production. They should have seen their limitations and planned for their increased product demands. This would have returned them to the first part of the strategic management mode, environmental scanning. Internally, their strengths did lie in the fact that that had a very efficient production system and they were a leader in the industry but they did not plan for increased production needs and this was a weakness in the structure of the organization and their chain of command. They should have analyzed the capabilities of the three plants they had and set up a pro forma based on increased sales to predict is they would be able to fulfill future orders. Eternally, they did not seem to anticipate that other companies might want to step into the market since there was demand, high profit margins and not a lot of competition. They should have known that a technology such as theirs would be increasing over time and that in order to stay the industry leader they would have to stay on top of their game and constantly watch out for any competition. I think that the board member who opposed the temporary solution should have expressed his feelings sooner or at least foreseen this situation. It is irresponsible for him to reject the proposal without having some idea of another solution. I think they can come to a compromise. If they do use the empty plant in the northeast U. S. they can try and bargain with the union to set up a plan that benefits the employees. By letting the community know in advance that the plant will only be open for three years, the company and the unions can work together to come up with a solution that benefits both parties. They could also offer job transfers to their employees. The company cannot realistically expect to make a profit at this plant but must recognize that it exists to offset shortages in production. That is where strategy formulation comes in to play. If the mission of the company is to supply their products and continue to be the industry leader they need to increase production and plan a schedule for sales fulfillment. There is also the other option of finding a plant closer to where they are building the new facility. Even if they might pay more to lease the building and set it up, the savings from labor costs and transportation costs might offset those factors. Corporate governance and the social responsibility of a company to the community could be addressed at Byte in the future by creating an nterprise strategy which explains the companies ethical values and social responsibilities and analyzes how they relate to the concerns of their various stakeholders. Stakeholder analysis would identify the primary and secondary stakeholders and the effects of ant strategic decisions on each group. Based on Carroll’s four responsibilities of a business organization, the economic and legal concerns of the primary stakeholders come first. Once these concerns are satisfied the social responsibilities which affect the secondary stakeholders should be addressed. Ethical responsibilities are standards of behavior not required by law but ignoring them could have serious consequences. Many people are expecting companies to act ethically and will not do business with those who do not act in a socially responsible manner. Even though it might be profitable for a company to operate this way in the long run they will suffer financially. The role of the board of directors of a company has changed significantly over the last decade due in part to ethical breaches made by top management of big companies. It is now legally required for boards to oversee management and boards themselves are now regulated by government. Management for companies as well as their boards have a responsibility to the shareholders who invest in them and to the stakeholders who enable them to operate. In this case, the profitability of Byte products is at risk as well as their corporate reputation. Proper and thorough strategic planning could have anticipated both situations and would have created strategies to address them both before they became major problems.

Vertical Handoff in Wireless Cellular Networks Essay Example

Vertical Handoff in Wireless Cellular Networks Essay Communication is always necessary in building relations to mankind, when two persons meet they need some medium to interchange their views but due to distance barriers some tools are required to communicate each other. At the end of 19th century, reckoned scientist Graham Bell laid the first stone in the field of communication using different tools regardless of distance. He invented first wired base telephony equipment. It was the solution for the voice communication for the people how far apart they are. After this radio based communication systems Era started. It was an extension of wired based networks. In the beginning it was developed for some special purposes like military and police usage. With the passage of time these systems emerged to allow common peoples to communicate with each other, rather then using wired based network. After this the age of faster communication and capabilities of voice get started and evolved into new telecommunication system. 1. 1 Evolution of Cellular Communication: During the 1980s mobile cellular network’s age started, because the wireless communication has under gone different changes during the past 10 years, So its experienced enormous growth. The Figure 1. shows the evolution of the cellular networks. In this figure we have categorized the Cellular networks into five different parts. The first four are existing parts and the last one is the future part. Figure 1. 1: Evolution of Cellular Network 1. 2. 1 First Generation (1G) First Generation mobiles networks utilize analogue transmissions. In 1979 Nippun Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Japan introduces the first operational cellular networks. In North America ATamp;T introduces the First Generation mobile systems for the customer in 1980s. This system was named as Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS). We will write a custom essay sample on Vertical Handoff in Wireless Cellular Networks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Vertical Handoff in Wireless Cellular Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Vertical Handoff in Wireless Cellular Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In First Generation the basic structure of Cellular communication is characterized and many problems were resolved regarding accomplishment of cellular network. In First generation mobile networks the primary ambition was the voice chat. The above stated system was operational at 40 MHz bandwidth and 800 to 900 MHz Frequency. In 1988 this range was expended up to 10 MHz called expended spectrum in AMPS. 1. 2. 2 Second Generation (2G) At the end of 1980s Second Generation (2G) mobile network system was launched. In this system the traditional voice services and low rate data service was provided. The foremost change in this system regarding the First Generation was the switching from analogue to digital transmission, so due to digital transmission better data services and spectrum efficiency was provided. During Second Generation (2G) era the Global System for mobile communication (GSM) was developed in Europe. Using this system International roaming and seamless services was offered in Europe. In the beginning GSM operates at 900 MHz Frequency band with bandwidth of 50 MHz. Many more advancement was made in GSM during last two decades of previous century, due to these improvements GSM became 2. G cellular networks. GSM cellular network was implemented over 190 countries and have approximately 800 million subscribers. In 1996 a new digital cellular system with additional services and supporting more data rate, called TDMA was put into practice. At the end of 20th century Second Generation (2G) cellular system was dominated, whoever it was evolving into a new generation called 3G due to increasing rate of mobile traffic. The enhancement of GPRS in GSM enabled it to support relatively high data rate and sharing capacity between the different users. Theoretically General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) support 160 Kbps but practically it provides only 40 Kbps. 1. 2. 3 Third Generation (3G) The unexpected success of Second Generation (2G) networks persuaded the Telecom Companies to explore more to fulfil the upcoming user requirement of larger data rate and Quality of Services (QoS). This strong driving force enabled the vendors as well as Telecom Companies to launch the new applications such as wireless internet and video telephony. The Figure 2. 2 expresses the upcoming demands of users and services provided by the Telecom Companies. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was already working to develop 3G networks. In 2000 International Mobile Telephony (IMT) was developed by ITU with the target of 3G in Europe with the following upcoming targets. 1. The mobile system should propose the same voice quality as PSTN. 2. The mobile system should sustain the high data rate in moving vehicles. 3. The mobile system should bear up to 2 Mb data rate in indoor location. 4. The mobile system should maintain the symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission. 5. The mobile system should keep up the packet switched and circuit switched data. 1. 2. 4 Fourth Generation (4G) The current standards of Telecommunication are driven to replace with 3G in upcoming years. This future cellular network is named as 4G. the objectives of 4G includes seamless communication with broad range connection with internet at any time anywhere and support of data, pictures and videos on internet. The 4G network will consist of internet protocols such as to facilitate the subscribers by enabling the selection of every application and any environment. In 4G cellular networks a high bandwidth with high data rate is required, also in 4G a quicker and optimized strategy of handover is required to make the clear and reliable communication. The 4G network system will run with the cooperation of 2G and 3G and also will impart IP based wireless communication. The main target in 4G will be video streaming on IP based protocol, such as IP TV. 1. 2 Emerging Technologies In cellular mobile networks, there are two major issues data rate and mobility, bandwidth and coverage according to these two issues we can divide network technologies into two different technologies. . The technologies with low data rate and mobility. 2. Technologies with high data rate and bandwidth with small coverage. According to these specifications in current age the technologies, WIMAX, WLAN, WIBRO, HSDPA and HSPA are offering high data rate mobility and coverage to both circuit switched networks and packet switched networks. 1. 3. 5 Wireless LAN The Wireless Local A rea Network (WLAN) is an unlicensed band of 802. 11 ISM frequency band. 802. 11 is one of the recent communication technologies of IEEE standard. It specifies medium access control (MAC) and physical layer that is why it is called Wireless LAN. It has three widely used types which operates on different frequency bands. These three types are 802. 11a, 802. 11b and 802. 11g. 802. 11a operates on 5 GHz frequency band and it gives the maximum data rate speed of 54 Mbps, which is higher than 802. 11b because 802. 11b operates on 2. 4 GHz frequency band and give the maximum data rate speed of 11Mbps. 802. 11b operates. 802. 11g is recently developed standards of Wireless LAN. It also operates on 2. GHz frequency band and give the maximum data rate speed of 54 Mbps. In 802. 11 Wireless LAN standards, the two types of MAC protocols Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and Point Coordination Function (PCF) are used. Nowadays the most applications available in the markets are uses DCF because it is simple, robust and easy to implement. DCF is the basic MAC layer function in Wireless LANs, Which used Carrier Sense Multiple Access tech nique (CSMA) also with an addition of Collision Avoidance of (CA). It resolves the CA problems of the packets transmitted at the same time. 1. 3. 6 WIMAX The fiber optic transport services providing the high bandwidth and data rates is replaced by WIMAX wireless technology all across the world. WIMAX is emerging technology to fulfil the high data rate and QoS requirements of the customers, also it is the cheap deployment of voice services with no need of line of sight wireless channel. WIMAX signals have the property to adopt the atmospheric conditions everywhere. WIMAX electromagnetic waves also offer the support of adoptive coding and different operation modes, so voice and data services can easily be transported by WIMAX network platform. 1. 3. 7 Wireless Broadband (WiBro) The Wireless Broadband is recently developed wireless technology offering high speed data service over internet. Actually it is newest technology developed by Korean research group often referred as (Next G) communication system. WiBro is capable to provide high data rate communication with diversity of QoS according to the demands of users over wireless channels. In WiBro Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is used according to IEEE 802. 16a standard, to provide the services in Heterogeneous network system. Since different broadband services offer different amount of data rates according to different priorities (e. . video streaming requires the high bandwidth, whereas voice services require higher priority). Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) operates under the different conditions (e. g. as the requirements of users data rate are given when the sub carrier assignment and transmit power allocation occur), this problem is solved by non linear pro gramming techniques in WiBro. 1. 3. 8 High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) is introduced in (3G) wireless network obtain high speed data rates. By implementing HSDPA some problems arisen to address the major business topics, one of these problems is radio. The transmission scheme designed for GPRS is upgraded by EDGE is also has limited features. The optimization of only radio is not enough; also transmission strategy should be designed to overcome these problems in every day growing traffic. HSDPA is modified interface version of UMTS in 3GPP. It provides not only down link packet access but also it can be used for uplink data up to 14 Mbps per user. 1. 3. 9 High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) It is revised the version of HSDPA. It also offers the high data rate for downlink as well as uplink 14 Mbps. 2. WIRELESS LAN 3. 1 Introduction In Wireless Local Area Network (Wireless LAN) the user is facilitate with high bit rate connection because of wireless (Radio) connection. The range of wireless LAN is fairly short but it support high bit rate. In Wireless LAN, IEEE standards enumerate its different types and these IEEE standards also include the encryption algorithm (e. g. WEP) to make Wireless LAN more secure as compare to regular LAN. Figure 2. 1: WLAN Access Points The Figure 2. 1 demonstrates the simple physical architecture of Wireless LAN. In Wireless LAN the wired network is connected to Access Point (AP) that grants wireless access through Network Interface Card (NIC) to clients. 3. 2 Architecture of Wireless LAN Wireless Local Area Network instigate as an overlay to the Wired Local Area Network. Lightweight and Autonomous are two discrete architectures used in WLAN environment. Each of the architectures has wide impact on wired LAN architecture. The selection of WLAN architecture is based on the consideration of building, future proof, integrated wired and Wireless LAN to accomplish high return on investment. Both architectures are popular but Lightweight architecture has plus advantages over the WLAN market. 3. 3. 1 Lightweight Model Lightweight is the part of WLAN architecture. With most of wireless intelligence which residing at central controlling device, lightweight Wireless Access Point architecture have narrow functionality. Figure 2. 2: Lightweight Architecture Model Lightweight model is simple. The devices that provide the communication to the end user as Access Layer are identified by lightweight. Distribution layer provide the inter communication and the top layer (Core Layer) of Lightweight model is responsible fast and consistent data between networks. Wireless Access Point (WAP) resides at the interface of access layer and provides the communication interface to end user. In lightweight architecture model, the management of operation is easy because it give the permission to WAP from single device, because the lightweight WAP have the knowledge of visibility and attentiveness of the neighbours WAPs. They can observe and if any one of their neighbours becomes the victim of fault it notifies the wireless controller. Lightweight WAP may be Self-healing because to pay compensation for unsuccessful counterpart, controller commands the neighbouring WAP to regulate their power level, where as in autonomous there is no concept of the visibility of its WAP neighbouring and in this case to perform self healing it cannot adjust the power level. If single WAP is busy or overloaded then in this situation wireless controller can relieve the wireless client to neighbouring WAP. In critical applications such as VoIP, self-healing and load balancing are important issues. 3. 3. 2 Autonomous Model In Autonomous Model WAP is not mandatory as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. 3: Autonomous Architecture Model Autonomous Wireless Access Point sustains the switching and strong security as well as networking function that are indispensable to route the wireless traffic. As in autonomous system there is no concept of the visibility of WAP so it cannot make the load balancing. Autonomous model cannot differentiate whether ne arest WAP is part of WLAN infrastructure or illegal rouge WAP. The difference between the autonomous and lightweight is negligible. The difference is only this that lightweight have one extra component (WLAN controller). 3. 3 Wireless LAN Protocol Stack In OSI Layer Model IEE 802. 11 instigate on Data Link Layer and Physical Layer. The Figure 2. 4 illustrates the IEEE 802. 11 Protocol Stack. Figure 2. 4: IEEE 802. 11 Protocol Stack * Logical Link Control (LLC) * Medium Access Control (MAC) Logical Link Control sub layer ensure that during interfacing with network layer 802. 11 protocol use the standard format, it is also responsible to make transparent the underlying hardware and protocol with upper layer. 802. 11 standards describe two types of operation for MAC sub layer i. e. Distributed Coordination Function (DFC) and Point Coordination Function (PCF). This layer is also makes sure the flaxen and systematic access to the wireless medium. In Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) mode asynchronous data is transferred. To control access to the shared medium, DCF mode employs the Carrie Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) with Collision Avoidance (CA). Point Coordination Function is proposed for time bound services. In PCF mode access point behave as Point Coordinator and Polls connected to terminals. In this way to sustain time bound services and certain level of Quality of Services (QoS), the bandwidth can be allocated scientifically. The IEEE 802. 1 standard also breaks the Physical Layer in to two sub layers. To offer the common physical interface for MAC layer which is self-determining of transmission technology, the Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) was intended. On the basis of infrared and radio transmission (FHSS and DSSS) only three transmission technologies were instigated, when first time IEEE 802. 11 standard was intro duced. Afterward IEEE 802. 11a and 802. 11b initiated supplementary transmission technologies, such as HR-DSSS and OFDM respectively. 3. 4 Wireless LAN Components The components of Wireless LAN are * Basic Service Set (BSS) Extended Service Set (ESS) * Distribution Service (DS) * Mobile Node (MN) * Access Point (AP) 3. 5. 3 Basic Service Set In Basic Service Set (BSS) multiple stations can communicate with one another, because of electromagnetic waves circulation BSS does not refers to specific region. In BSS when there is no wired network and all the stations are mobile then BSS will become Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). When AP enters in BSS then BSS will call Infrastructure BSS. In BSS when mobile stations communicate with each other than their communication will always held via AP. In this way double bandwidth will utilize as contrast to IBSS. . 5. 4 Extended Service Set (ESS) Extended Service Set (ESS) is set of IBSS. In ESS the traffic is forwarding from one BSS to anot her when Access Points communicate among themselves. In ESS Access point perform communication through physical means, called Distribution System (DS). All the Mobile Stations in ESS are happen to be a MAC Layer network, where all the stations are fixed. 3. 5. 5 Distribution System (DS) The Distributed System is physical medium through which Access points in their BSS communicate to exchange the frame for stations. These frames exchanged through physical mean. 3. 5. 6 Mobile Node (MN) In Wireless LAN Mobile Node is the most essential component. Through wireless medium the MN communicate with other MN and to AP which is associated with wired network. MN may be PC or Note book that is equipped with wireless Network Interface Card (NIC). 3. 5. 7 Access Point (AP) In Wireless and wired network the AP is a transceiver that can transmit, store and receive the data. AP also works as bridge between wired and wireless networks. In the wired network the AP is connected with the server that offers the service to MN. In wireless networks the AP acts as Base Station (BS), that combines the wireless network with wired network. . 5 Network Topologies of Wireless LAN 3. 6. 8 Ad-Hoc Model Ad-Hoc mode also refers to as peer-to-peer communication between the mobile nodes (MN). This mode is suitable where data is needed to be exchange. The range of ad-mode is inadequate to the Mobile Node only. Ad-hoc mode has the low precedence than infrastructure mode Figure 2. 5: Ad-Hoc Mode 3. 6. 9 Infrastructure Model In Infrastructure mode Mobile Node and Access Point are two basic components. In Infrastructure mode Mobile Nodes connected to an Access Point, and AP can communicate with Mobile Node and server linked to wired network. In the same zone more than one AP can sustain the Mobile Node. In Infrastructure mode when one Mobile Node move across one AP to other AP then the roaming function must be awake for better QoS. Figure 2. 6: Infrastructure Mode In case of roaming the, all AP desires the same authentication, key function as Extended Service set ID (ESSID) and Wired Encryption Protocol (WEP) while they operate on the equivalent channel. 3. 6 Wireless LAN Standards The standards of Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) are developing gradually to get faster connection, and trying to get by with security and conflicting problems. The first standard of WLAN was introduced in 1997 and after this many other standards have been organized. Table 2. 1: WLAN Standards Protocol| Author| Frequency| Modulation| Data Rate| Comments| 802. 11| IEEE| 9mm MHz| FHSS| Upto 300 Kbps| Obsolescent| 802. 11b| IEEE| 2. 4 GHz, 900 MHz| DSSSFHSS legacy| 1-11 Mbps| Most Popular| 802. 11a| IEEE| 5 GHz UNII| OFDM| Upto 54 Mbps| Emerging| 802. 111h| IEEE| 5 GHz UNII| OFDM| Upto 54 Mbps| Adds Transient Power Control frequency selection to 802. 11a| HiperLAN| ETSI| 5. 15-5. 30 GHz or 17. 1 – 17. 2 GHz| GMSK| 23. 29 Mbps| European community Backed Standards| HiperLAN/2| ETSI| 5. 15-5. 30 GHz or 17. 1 – 17. 3 GHz| GMSK| 54 Mbps| European community Backed Standards| Bluetooth| Bluetooth Consortium| 2. 4 GHz| FHSS| 1 Mbps| Cable Replacement| 3. 7. 10 IEEE 802. 11 The development of WLAN began with the implementation of first IEEE 802. 11 WLAN standards. The 802. 11 standard have the utmost throughput up to 1 to 2 Mbits per secon d and operate in 2. 4 GHz frequency. The 802. 11 standard is based on radio technologies. WLAN intention was just to provide the wireless network infrastructure analogous to wired Ethernet network. . 7. 11 IEEE 802. 11b IEEE 802. 11b is most popular and organize standard as compare to 802. 11, which was launched in 1999. IEEE 802. 11b standard also operate in the same frequency 2. 4MHz like 802. 11 but the throughput rate was 11Mbits per second. The term WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) was first introduce in this standard 802. 11b, however later this term was changed to mean any type 802. 11 network together with 802. 11a, 802. 11b dual band. The WiFi term was used to ease the uncertainty issues of WLAN interoperability. 3. 7. 12 IEEE 802. 11a and HiperLAN This standard was bring out late in 1999 but in 2000 this standard was revised as an adjunct to 802. 11. 802. 11a standard operates in 5MHz frequency band instead of conventional 2. 4 MHz. To supporting data rate up to 54 Mbps, this standard was used in ODFM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). The emergence of 802. 11a and 802. 11b is quite slow because these two standards are not companionable with each other. Proxim and Envara, Inc manufactures emerge the dual mode products that support 802. 11a and 802. 11b standards. The 802. 11a standard is still quite sparse technology although 802. 11b emerge round about two year ago. The use of this standard was limited because in Europe 5MHz range permitted for use by reason of the overlapping of frequencies with the military channels. Once again 5GHz technologies may become more common as 2. 4 GHz technologies develop more common. One day 5 GHz can work much better than 2. 4 GHz because it may be possible that 2. 4 GHz frequency band become so congested by 4G and Bluetooth devices. 3. 7. 13 HiperLAN In August 2001, European Telecommunication Standard Institute (ETSI) standard for 5 GHz range was permitted, because in 2001 the use of 5 GHz technology has been scattering in Europe. HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) is IEEE 802. 11 standards. HiperLAN has already grown into two different standards, HiperLAN/1 and HiperLAN/2 respectively. HiperLAN/1 throughput is 20Mbps where as HiperLAN/2 throughput is 54 Mbps. Both standards work on 5 GHz frequency band and cannot be replaceable with 802. 11b standards because this standard requires total renovation of WLAN hardware. 3. 7. 14 IEEE 802. 11g This standard was scheduled for endorsement in the summer of 2003, this standard also operate on 2. 4 GHz technology, that is compatible with wide spread WLAN-technology, 802. 11b. The IEEE 802. 11g standard promise for better security than its precursor. If the network has to be slow down in sequence of 802. 11b client to understand the traffic, it will take long time before purchasing the expensive 802. 11g. 3. 7 IEEE 802. 11 Physical MAC Frame Format In IEEE802. 11 MAC frame format, each frame consists of following three components. †¢ MAC header * A variable length frame body * A frame check sequence (FCS) MAC header involves the sequence control information, duration, address and frame control. Variable length frame body contains the precise information about the type of frame. Frame sequence check enclose 32 bit Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). General frame format is shown below Figure 2. 7: MAC Frame Format The MAC frame format includes a set of field that arise in frame in fixed order. Figure 2. 4 illustrate the general MAC frame format. The fields address 2, address 3, address 4, frame body and sequence control are present in certain frame type. The length of â€Å"Duration ID† field is 2 bytes or 16 bits. The length of duration in this field is range from 0 to 32667. The Network Allocation Vector (NAV) is update using the duration values. In MAC Frame format there are four â€Å"Address† fields. These four address fields designate the transmitting and receiving address, source and destination address. The length of â€Å"Sequence Control† field is 16 bits. The sequence number and fragment number is also sub field of â€Å"Sequence Control† field. The length of â€Å"Frame Body† field is variable. This frame encloses the information explicit to individual frame type and subtype. The length of last â€Å"FCS† field is 32 bit. The calculation of FCS field is done above all the fields of MAC header and the fields of Frame Body. 3. 8. 15 Frame Control Field The frame control consists of further sub fields as shown in Figure 2. 5. Figure 2. : Frame Control Field The length of protocol version field is 2 bit. This field is constant in size. The protocol version for this standard is 0. All other values are reversed. Fundamental inappropriateness stays alive between the prior edition and new version when only the revision level will be implemented. Both â €Å"type† and â€Å"subtype† field identify the frame function. The type field is 2 bit and sub type is 4 bit in length. The length of â€Å"To DS† field is 1 bit. This field is set 0 in all other frames. This comprises the frames of all data type sent by STAs, which is connected with an AP. The next field â€Å"from DS† is 1 bit in length. It is also set 0 in all other fields. The length of next â€Å"More Fragment† is 1 bit. It set to 1 in all management type frames but set 0 in all other frames. The length of â€Å"Retry field† is 1 bit. It also set to 1 in any management type frame. To eliminate the duplication of frame the Receiving Station uses this as aid indicator. The length of â€Å"More Data† field is 1 bit. This field is valid in management type frame, which is transmitted by an AP to STA in save mode. The length of â€Å"WEP† field is 1. if the information processed by WEP algorithm is present in frame body field then WEP field is set to 1. The length of last field â€Å"Order† is 1 bit. This field also set 0 in all other frames. 3. 8 Security Issues in Wireless LAN Above discussed Wireless LAN standards have numerous security drawbacks which have not been preset yet. The main reason of these drawbacks is the nature of communication which is diverse in Wireless LAN when it contrasts with customary physical medium. Regrettably many Network Administrators (NA) are still unaware about these drawbacks although these drawbacks have been under conversation for long time. In future standards many of these security flaws are optimistically going to repair. . 9. 16 Security Issues between Wireless/Wired Networks Wireless LAN technology is more vulnerable to attacks as compared to traditional network because of its wireless communication. In Wireless ALN to tape somebody’s phone is much easier than conventional Ethernet network, because in Ethernet network, to gain access to traffic, the office has to be broken wher eas in wireless LAN anyone can get by simply to get into the range of WLAN. To eliminate this problem, the building should be isolated to stop Wireless LAN microwaves seeping out, but this process will be much pricey and tough. As in Wireless LAN, to tape somebody’s phone is easy so for this purposes numerous applications such as Airopeek (commercial wireless network traffic and protocol analyser)have been developed. Through Airopeek, even a new user, who don’t have experience about this can easily monitor and confine the traffic on unencrypted network. 3. 9. 17 The War of Driving and Chalking A new tool Netstumbler is used to monitor the WLAN to handle the new hacker culture evolved due to flaws mentioned above . The information about newly discovered WLAN is sent on the mapping system on the netstumbler by the users. The WLAN data and location can be found easily by a laptop NIC or GPS of a car during driving by the netstumbler. This new type of hacking is named as war driving and is more effective. Approximately 70 WLAN access points were found during the war driving at Helsinki in Finland last year. 3. 9. 18 Wired Equivalent Privacy Protocol Flaws This protocol is unsecured because it uses the RC4 encryption algorithms which already have the security faults. For getting the password to access the network, different types of free software are available on internet to hack the WEP; so many parties prove this hack able protocol. This hacking based on RC4 encryption algorithms which have weak initiation vectors. When there will be enough packets because of traffic load then initiation vectors disclose the WEP encryption key characters, so in this way by accessing the encryption key hackers get access to the network. In our discussion of security issues we assume that it is very rigid to install hacking program because these programs are not consistent in performance. 3. 9. 19 Counter Measures to WLAN Security Flaws In most of the cases it is a good approach to assume that all WLAN traffic is learnt by hackers. It makes users of WLAN technology to implement their own security solutions otherwise they may lose data confidentiality. There are some 802. 11b compatible equipments that use WEP but they avoid using weak initiation vectors that produce week packets on the network to make it vulnerable. It is a very easy way to enhance the security, but still there are flaws. The network is secure only if all the participants of the network don’t produce weak initiation vectors, moreover it is not possible to stop a device from initiating weak packets. So this solution becomes a serious vulnerability. On the other hand if a tunnel of VPN or SSH is used to encapsulate the WLAN traffic, the network becomes much secure. Tunnelled traffic doesn’t provide any chance for man-in-middle attacks. It is very easy to implement this approach, a VPN server is installed right behind WLAN access point so that only the encrypted traffic is allowed to enter into the network. Some problems in this solution are lack of awareness on the administrative level, cost and the installation of encryption servers. In addition denial of service problem may arise, and change of frequencies to avoid denial of service attacks is very hard. . UMTS 4. 9 Introduction UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) is third generation (3G) mobile communications system being developed within the framework defined by ITU. In order to provide high quality mobile communication at low cost, UMTS is used to accelerate convergence and integration between Telecommunication, Information Technology and service provid er. UMTS support 2 Mbit data transfer rate per subscriber, facilitating, the deployment of mobile multimedia services such as downloading of MP3 audio and video streaming. UMTS is continuously bringing the development of new techniques and wireless technologies around the world. These common developments need the common agreement towards the standardization. The main objective of this standardization is to confirm identical specification for different parts. The UMTS was specified to ensure equipment compatibility based on UTRAN standardization. 3GPP specifications are generally based on GSM specifications and generally known as UMTS system. In this chapter we describe the UMTS technology. This chapter starts with small description of UMTS Technology such as its general architecture, protocol architecture, security architecture, future prospects, problems, services it provides and feasibility in the upcoming years in the vision of vertical handover. The chapter will be finalized with the brief introduction to overlay network and vertical handover which is main problem to solve the convergence scenario. 4. 10 UMTS Architecture UMTS system use radio interface and core network as GPRS. In UMTS new radio network is called UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network. and connected through Iu interface to core network of GPRS. In UMTS system mobile terminal is called User Equipment. The User Equipment is directly connected to Node B interface. In GSM system the Node B is similar to BTS and normally works as cell. Other Node Bs are controlled by RNC through Iub interface. The circuit switch data is transferred via Iu-CS and packet base data is transferred via Iu-PS interface respectively. In UTRAN Iur is new interface which connects two Radio Network Controllers but not same in GSM system. The Iur interface eliminates the Core Network burden and 100% facilitates the handling of Radio Resource management. Figure 3. 1: Fundamental Architecture of UMTS 4. 11 UMTS Protocol Stack In OSI model the UMTS is put into operation on three layers. * Physical Layer * Data Link Layer * Network Layer The UMTS protocol stack can be divided into * Control Plane In control plane the control information’s are exchanged. * User Plane Actual data is broadcasted between the users in user plane. * Management Plane In management plane the individual layers configuration is done. The UMTS protocol stack is illustrated in figure given below Figure 3. 2: Protocol Stack of UMTS Radio data transmission interrelated tasks are switch at physical layer of UMTS protocol stack. The Medium Access Control (MAC) Sublayer launch the logical channels which are multiplexed to form transport channel through which data is transmit. The Radio link Control (RLC) uses the diverse modes of operation to handle d

Explore the importance of ethical, legal and professional values in Abortion The WritePass Journal

Explore the importance of ethical, legal and professional values in Abortion   References Explore the importance of ethical, legal and professional values in Abortion AbstractConclusions   ReferencesRelated Abstract Abortion is a worldwide growing concern and is a controversial topic of debate. The main objective of the following essay is to explore the importance of ethical, legal and professional values in abortion. This paper will provide up to date information and comprehensive review with the help of evidence based literature research. It will also explore the possible solutions and recommendations to support ethical and legal perspectives. Initially, it will provide brief information about abortion and its legal values. Further, it will make links with ethical concept, related issues and conflicts specific to health practice. Moreover, the role of health care professionals discussed in detail where appropriate. All the data is collected form from the University digital library which gave access to recommended electronic journals. Further literature collected from the related articles. Some sources also gained from Department of Health, British Medical Association, WHO, Royal College of Nursing, British Pregnancy Advisory Services. According to the British Medical Association (2005) abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by expulsion of product of conception (foetus or embryo) from the uterus, before the foetus is viable (capable of living under normal condition and outside uterus).It is observed that, 98% of abortions are carried out because of risk to mental or physical health of women in Britain (Department of Health, 2007). It is clear from findings of the statistical bulletin (2009) that there were 189,000 abortions in the given year and highest rate was in between the age of 19-21, that was 33 per 1000. Under 16 rate was 4.0 and under 18 was 17.6 per 1000 women. Ratio of all categories was lower as compared to the year 2008 (Department of Health, 2009). According to the WHO (2004) illegal abortions are more common in developing countries as compare to developed countries due to restricted abortion laws. WHO highlighted that, 46 million abortions annually recorded and 20 million are unsafe (DO H, 2009). The law states that two doctors need to agree that the abortion can be carried out. They will reach this decision if they believe there is a greater risk to the womans mental or physical health if she continues with the pregnancy than if she has an abortion. The doctor can also take social circumstances into account when making this decision (British Abortion Act, 1967). Legal limit for abortion is 24 weeks gestation either by medical or surgical means (Royal College of Gynaecologists, 2004b). Nurses should maintain proper record before and after procedure including written consent (NMC,2007). Nurses should be familiar with the legal requirements of the Abortion Act 1967, as amended 1990 (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Nurses have professional responsibilities to act with integrity and ensure that their personal views do not affect or influence the care of the patient or client (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). According to the Mental Capacity Act (2005) special consideration should be given to the woman having serious mental illness (DoH, 2001c and NMC, 2005). The nurse should assist the individual in the decision making, with the decision based on the individual’s value system. However, the nurse should not take a lsissez-faire (leadership style) approach and avoid assisting the patient. The main responsibility of the nurse is to help the individual examine values, identify conflicts, priorities goals and desired health care outcomes. Actions follow from understanding values and the best available information (NMC, 2008). Ethics is concerned with humanization process (Ladd, 1978) especially in the field of nursing. According to the Dyck, (1977) ethics is a discipline and is a systematic analysis of what things are right or wrong, good or bad. Often the world morality is used as a substitute for ethics. Morality is merely a synonym for ethics that signifies the customary way of action (Ladd, 1978).Health care ethics sometimes also called medical ethics, biomedical ethics and bioethics. These are normative ethics specific to health science, in that it rise the question of what is right and what ought to be done in a health science situation when a moral decision is called for (Benjamin, 1992). According to the American Nurses Association ethical theory refers to a workable system that provides a proper framework within which individuals can determine and distinguish morally appropriate actions (ANA, 1997). In nursing, ethical principles act as safety valves for social control to prevent professional misconduct and abuse of rights of clients. Rights of people must manage according to National health policy and international conventions of human rights for safe guarding (Canadian code of ethics, 2009). It is proposed that code of ethics in nursing practice emphasizes on individual’s right to autonomy, self determination, truth telling, and equality (British Medical Association, 2009). Nursing should always be based on the principles of respecting persons, doing no harms and historically obedience to authority has often provided ethical basis (Raatikainen, 1989). Due to rapid socio cultural changes and advanced technology nurses faced challenge to respond ethical basis in health services. Respect of freedom is condition of personal growth and development, brotherhood is the condition of recognition in social participation and equality a condition for meeting for physical needs (Equality and human rights commission 2009). However, these values are linked together as a whole. Fulfilling each principle means acting for good of each dimension. To meet this approach nurses need strong ethical beliefs, professional education, comprehensive knowledge, critical analysing and thinking (Noble, 1999). It is argued that, life is valuable and is a gift from God (Belshaw, 1997). In case of abortion, it is a sin to destroy the foetal life because it interfere the creative work of god and against his will (BBC, 2009). But if abortion is critically reviewed, there are some factors and situations that require abortion. Again if abortion views from the foetus right to live then there is serious ethical argument of personhood in the favour of foetus. Belshaw (1997) stated that, the issue of personhood in literature always surrounding the abortion debate. For the classification of personhood five traits are essential (Card, 2000) that are consciousness, capacity to reason, self motivation, capacity to communication and self concept. All these criteria cannot be assessed in foetus (Dworkin, 1993). Therefore, abortion at any gestational age is ethical. In UK fetal has no legal rights and according to the American ethical policies foetus has both moral and legal values of personhood (BMA, 2007 ). According to the British Pregnancy Advisory Services (2010) every woman has right to control her own body with respect to her autonomy (independence or freedom). Abortion on the ground of maternal interest may be ethical (Gevers,1999).Abortion is a complicated topic that involves different and sometimes conflicting issues for example protecting foetal life, respecting woman right and preserving social harmony. In this situation it is very difficult to maintain balance in the value of one person’s life over another (Belshaw, 1997). Alongside it is also challenge for foetal personhood and its rights, Brown (2000) stated that if foetus is a person then its rights for using another’s body to survive, as it has no right over that person’s autonomy. Mother has the right to be separated from the foetus at any time, but doesn’t have the right to insist on its death (Card, 2000). Therefore, abortion can be done in case of mal formation but no measure to actually ki ll the foetus beforehand could be employed. In such circumstances nursing professionals experienced the dilemma (a problem offering at least two possibilities as, do or not do) of having to participate in abortion (Ballantyne, 2009). Sometimes it creates conscientious (refuse to perform) objection, but in critical situations they cannot be able to refusal (BMA, 2007). Tooley (1999) argued that if a foetus is classified as a person then it is only a justifiable to kill it in order to save the life of mother. However, if were not a person then it cannot be wrong to kill it, as it would not automatically have the right to life (Tooley, 1999). Serious congenital abnormality is another major ethical issue for continuing pregnancy, as it is known that continuation have no benefit to the fetus, then the fetal interest relies on the belief that the level of welfare a child would have if born is worse than to not exist at all (Gevers, 1999). It is suggested that yet, there are some disabilities that would mean to live be worse than non existence (Sheldon, 2001). It is also reported that, handicapped people, who would fight hard to gain success in their life, for them others may think that they had not been born. So, evidence assumed that tests performed with the intention of treating the new-born and for safe delivery are morally acceptable and tests for termination often violate the principle of non-maleficence (the duty not to harm) (Finni S, 1999). People in community who violate this principle would lower the happiness because killing of foetus is like a murder (Thomson, 1999). It is found that, pro medical genetic services are more beneficial for the detection of prenatal diagnosis and antenatal screening for the findings of congenital abnormalities (Angela, 2009)( like haemophilia, down syndrome, muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis and chromosomal abnormalities).It is under the principle of Utilitarianism (related with happiness and doing good). In some countries these are easily detected but there may some legal restrictions for abortions (Penchaszadeh, 1998). Hence this banned abortion law gave access to moral, social and psychological values (Simpson, 2007) in couples especially in women for termination of pregnancy. It is outlined that being known about defective foetus, women found difficulty to carry out pregnancy. In opinion, such countries should allow abortion (Angela, 2009). Seeing as many congenital abnormalities cannot be cured at any cost and if cured is too expensive. Statistics showed that, in developing countries limited human resources an d low income are barriers for life long treatment (Perera, 2000). Basically justification of a congenital abnormality exception is a major problem in countries having restricted abortion laws on the behalf of moral status of foetus (Ballentyne, 2009). Some consider that foetus has same moral status as compare to infant or child (Ashcroft, 2009) it should not countenance the destruction of foetus on the basis of the claim that it’s rearing will place an additional burden on the parents. So, parents should not allow to abort, either disabled foetus has lesser moral status after birth. It is also recommended that, all communities should learn lesson to cope with disability and their living pattern. Moreover, in cases where women are raped, getting pregnant with such a child is yet another brutality they would be forced to bear and raise a child without father or single parenthood (Tan, 2006) such factors are more likely to create violent behaviour and adverse interpersonal relationship, further leads to parental separation and even divorce and depressive symptomatology. These should be identified at every opportunity for positive carrier (Quinlivan, 2006). Thus the option of abortion is best for them to save the life of mother. Nurses should maintain privacy, dignity and confidentiality of the client under the abortion law (RCGN, 2004). Female infanticide is still another alarming issue in ethical practice due to cultural preferences it is known to be cruel way of getting rid of female infants (WHO,2009). In some cultures and societies there is urging for sons rather than daughters (Hussain, 2000).In these situations women usually suffer significant harms including vilification (slanderous) and physically as well as mentally abuse if she bears a daughter. According to their knowledge and understanding they are correct because of their individual preference of autonomous for freedom and to make a choice to meet their needs and desires (Rogers, 2007). They think that sons are care taker for their old age and help in keeping family name (Sumner,2009). In India statistics revealed that, from last decade the ratio of girls is continuously decreasing as compared to male child, which further create imbalance and great challenge for social fabric (Sharma, 2003). Sex determination should be totally banned and must be impleme nted on priority basis. At least, these should be prevented by punishment and implementation of adequate educational programmes to change behaviour and attitudes of communities and to improve importance of female child (Zeng, 2005). Evidence suggested that worldwide there are so many couples who want to adopt child at any circumstance (Bitler, 2002). Health care professionals should be encouraged to understand the value of adoption as an option to teach the vulnerable groups (like teens, people with unplanned pregnancies, unwanted children) to reduce the abortion rate and prevention of foetal murder (Young, 2006).Therefore adoption and care homes may be an acceptable alternative for those unwanted children, who will then be ill treated after birth by their parents. It is observed that, there would be a serious ethical dilemma in forcing women for continuation of unwanted pregnancy (Gevers, 1999) because maternal interest is the most leading factor for abortion. Research also recommended that, adoption is not an alternative to abortion. It is only an option. Conclusions Ethics cannot and should not justify every thing. In some places ethical imperatives coincide with public policy and /or practice, while in other places they diverge. Policy in no nation surveyed answers entirely to all of the ethical demands. However, there is a crucial need to use and improve specific public issues such as health care, abortion and bioethics. After passing the abortion act society has not become more welcoming to children. Parents are going away from their responsibilities for their children as well as their partners. With the existence of legal abortion thousands of children have lost their lives at the hands of doctors. Every abortion is a human tragedy for the child and for its mother. It should be avoided at any cost. Every child is an individual with its own future to respect. Abortion is a major social injustice, directed at those who are most vulnerable. The ethical status of abortion will remain controversial for the foreseeable future. Restrictive abortion law deserve greater attention. School based educational programmes and availability of contraceptive are more important to help in reduce the teenage abortions. Strategies will then need to focus on self esteem and reducing the idealization of pregnancy as a solution to general life dissatisfaction to gain positive carrier. Health care professional should be motivated to raise the ethical issues of in their practices for social justice and equity through successful educational programmes through out their carrier. To face the complexity of bioethical issues public appreciation can also play a pivotal role in the modern society.   References American Nurses Association (1997) â€Å"Position statement on cultural diversity in nursing practice†.   Washington: DC The Association Ashcroft R, et al (2009) â€Å"Prenatal diagnosis and abortion for congenital abnormalities†.  Ã‚   American Journal of Bioethics, 9 (8): pp. 48-56 Ballantyne A, et al (2009) â€Å"Prenatal diagnosis and abortion for congenital abnormalities: is it ethical to provide one without other?†Ã‚   [online] Available at:http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=107sid=dcefef83-ac24-4940-81e5-ada17cbdcf35%40sessionmgr110vid=11   (accessed on 10th November 2010) BBC (2009) â€Å"Ethics: Abortion†. [online]   Available at: bbc.co.uk  Ã‚   (accessed on 30th November 2010) Belshaw C(1997) â€Å"Abortion, value and sanctity of life†. Bioethics, 11 (4) p. 130-1150 Bitler M, et al (2002) â€Å"Did abortion legalization reduce the number of unwanted children? Evidence from adoptions†. [online]   Available at: http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=105sid=b66b57c0-0a98-4bca-b69a-8eb2c57250fc%40sessionmgr114vid=10   Ã‚  (accessed on 10th January 2011) British Medical Association (2007) â€Å"The laws and ethics of abortion†.   [online]   Available at: bma.org.uk  Ã‚  Ã‚   (accessed on 28th November 2010) British Pregnancy Advisory Services (2010) â€Å"Abortion†.   [online]   Available at: bpas.org/bpaswoman/abortion  Ã‚   (accessed on 9th January 2011) Brown M (2000) â€Å"The morality of abortion and the deprivation of futures†. Journal of Medical Ethics, 26 (2) p. 103-7 Canadian Code of Ethics (2009) â€Å"Nursing code of ethics: Guidelines for making ethical decision making†. [online]   Available at:registered-nurse-canada.com/nursing_code_of_ethics.html#top  Ã‚   (accessed on 5th January 2011) Card R (2000) â€Å"Infanticide and the liberal view of abortion†. Bioethics, 14 (4) p. 341-51 Department of Health (2001c) â€Å"Seeking consent working with people with learning disabilities†. Department of Health, London Department of health (2007) â€Å"Statistical Bulletin. Abortion statistics, England and Wales†. [online]   Available at: dh.gov.uk/assetRoot/04/11/75/74/04117574.pdf  Ã‚   (accessed on 8th January 2011) Department of health (2009) â€Å"Statistical Bulletin: Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2009†. [online]   Available at:dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/documents/digitalasset/dh_116336.pdf  Ã‚   (accessed on 20th November 2010) Dworkin R (1993) â€Å"Life’s domination: An argument about abortion and euthanasia†. Harper Collins, London Finnis J (1999) â€Å"Abortion and health care ethics†. Bioethics, Blackwell publishers, Malden p. 13-20 Gevers S (1999) â€Å"Third trimester abortion for fetal abnormality†.   Bioethics, 3 (4) p. 306-15 Human Rights Watch (2005) â€Å"Decisions denied†.   [online]   Available at:http:www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/06/14/decisions-denied-0  Ã‚  Ã‚   (accessed on 6th January 2011) Hussain R et al (2000) â€Å"The role of son preference in reproductive behaviour in Pakistan†. [online]   Available at:http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/detail?hid=105sid=b66b57c0-0a98-4bca-b69a-8eb2c57250fc%40sessionmgr114vid=14bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=rzhAN=2000037256   (accessed on 10th January 2011) Noble –AdamsR (1999) â€Å"Ethics and nursing research†. British Journal of Nursing, 8(14) p.956-60 Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008)†The code Standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurse and midwifes†.   NMC, London Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2004b) â€Å"The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion†. [online] Available at:rcog.org.uk/resources/Public/pdf/induced_abortionfull.pdf  Ã‚   (accessed on 2nd January 2011) Sharma DC (2003) â€Å"Widespread concern over India’s missing girls†.   [online]   Available at:http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=107sid=a11620b1-6ce4-4dbf-9588-f697b3506632%40sessionmgr110vid=5  Ã‚   (accessed on 3rd January 2011) Sumner MM (2009) â€Å"The unknown genocide: how one country’s culture is destroying the girl child†.   [online]   Available at: http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=107sid=a11620b1-6ce4-4dbf-9588-f697b3506632%40sessionmgr110vid=7   (accessed on 3rd January 2011) Tan LH, Quinlivan JA (2006) â€Å"Domestic violence, single parenthood and fathers in the setting of teenage pregnancy†.   [online]   Available at: http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/detail?hid=110sid=350eac2f-9fb6-45ee-a11f-6d8f884ecbe7%40sessionmgr114vid=3bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=rzhAN=2009152510     Ã‚  Ã‚  (accessed on 15th December 2010) Thomson J (1999) â€Å"A defence of abortion†. Bioethics, Blackwell Publishers, Malden p. 36-45 Tooley M (1999) â€Å"Abortion and infanticide†. Bioethics, Blackwell Publishers, Malden p. 21-35 Rogers W et al (2007) â€Å"Is sex selective abortion morally justified and should it be prohibited? [online]   Available at:http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=105sid=b66b57c0-0a98-4bca-b69a-8eb2c57250fc%40sessionmgr114vid=18   (accessed on 8th January 2011) Raatikainen R (1989) â€Å"Values and ethical principles in nursing†.   Journal of Advance Nursing, 14(2) p. 92- 6 Sheldon S, Wilkinson S (2001) â€Å"Termination of pregnancy for reason of fetal disability†. Med Law Rev 9 (2) p. 85-109 Young R (2006) â€Å"Vermont   Children’s Aid Society offers free training on Understanding Infant Adoption to health care†. [online]   Available at:http://0-web.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=105sid=b66b57c0-0a98-4bca-b69a-8eb2c57250fc%40sessionmgr114vid=12   (accessed on 10th January 2011)

Voter - to Vote - French Verb Conjugations

Voter - to Vote - French Verb Conjugations The  French verb  voter  means to vote. Use the tables below to find conjugations of this regular -er verb. Conjugations of Voter Present Future Imperfect Present participle je vote voterai votais votant tu votes voteras votais il vote votera votait nous votons voterons votions vous votez voterez votiez ils votent voteront votaient Pass compos Auxiliary verb avoir Past participle vot Subjunctive Conditional Pass simple Imperfect subjunctive je vote voterais votai votasse tu votes voterais votas votasses il vote voterait vota vott nous votions voterions votmes votassions vous votiez voteriez vottes votassiez ils votent voteraient votrent votassent Imperative (tu) vote (nous) votons (vous) votez Verb conjugation pattern Voter is a regular -ER verb

Marketing in Microsoft Company Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing in Microsoft Company - Research Paper Example Marketing in Microsoft Company The company started as from 1975 and located in United States of America. The fact that technology has grown to a very high level, the company plays a great role of developing new versions of soft wares now and then (Scott, Lee, and Weiss, 2008). As a matter of fact, computers are used all over the world. They are used in companies, institutions and in many other fields. In industries such as business related, the company makes most of the products. Microsoft has provided a very good zone for those who wish to market their viral products. The company has been able to make it more profitable due to the marketing strategies it utilizes. Principle of marketing that Microsoft company uses Product As the main principle, a company’s product must provide the required value to expected clients. The softwares that are produced by the company are friendly to use. However, the soft wares are readily available to the customers. The products are unique and helpful to the users. However, the best thing about the products is that they are essential in any computer. This makes them a basic need for any computer user. However, they work well with most operating systems. The programs are made in such a way that they contain a lot of security. The company does this through ensuring that the security of their softwares is very high and very hard to be destroyed. The company targets at meeting the needs of all those computer users in different fields such as schools, hospitals, industries, companies. With the use of the soft wares, all the business enterprises are in a position to easier their workload and reduce costs. However, the company meets the main target of making profit. The quality of the product is ensured to be very high and the best. This makes the company’s products more preferred as compared to other companies. In terms of quality, statistics have ranked Microsoft Company as leading in several rankings (Scott, Lee, and Weiss, 2008). Pricing Measuring with the industries prices, a company must set competitive prices that will ultimately generate profits. In this reference, Microsoft Company’s pricing of its products is very standard in that depending on the quality and the target market. The prices are relatively low and affordable to those who earn very little. This makes the company have more customers since it m inds the welfare of all the customers. However, the quality of the product is what makes the company attract more customers (Scott, Lee, and Weiss, 2008). Placement The location of buying the products and manner of delivery matters in the marketing process. The company uses search engines to deliver its product to the customers worldwide. Search engines such as Google are widely used by the company for online marketing of its products. This mode of distribution ensures that any person who can access internet can get the product very easily without incurring any cost of traveling to the place where the company is located. This mode of delivery is the best since it ensures that the products are well distributed and readily available to the willing and potential buyers. The company uses the strategy of networking in order to reach more customers (Scott, Lee, and Weiss, 2008). Promotion Companies should ensure that potential customers are aware of the existence of their products especia lly innovations. Genuineness in promoting its products makes it friendly to the customers. It targets at ensuring that the communication between the company and the customers is

Campaign Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Campaign Analysis - Essay Example The goal is one the United Nations formulated in the hope of changing the trends and perceptions of the entire world regarding the management of the environment. The goal is a social change program because it entails both communicative aspects and an implementation that relies on modification of the characters of people. An interpretation of the development goal will elaborate its scope within the social context. The communicative aspects of the project will demonstrate the effectiveness of the theories of communication of social change. Development of the field of development communication is not like the rest of the areas of knowledge because there exists many practical theories used simultaneously. As such, newer ideas emerge and apply alongside older theories of the same case. The developed theories have a basis of a number of factors. Most of them seek to interpret the relationship between people and development projects. For instance, they try to establish the correlation between culture and the environment, psychology and the political interventions to environmental development (Gumucio & Tufte 2006, p.531). They also consider the link between individuals and the community and the existing hierarchy as well as their involvement. As such, the theories explain the importance of communicating the process of social change in the society. The most dominant paradigm has been behavior change models because social change entails behavioral adjustments (McMichael 2008, p. 276). Most of such theories based on the idea that the hindrances to development lied in lack of lack of knowledge of the people. As such, the principles affirmed that the best approaches were those that would provide the people with information that would change their character. One such theory is that of modernization, which proposes that information and culture deficits underlie the development problems, and their solutions

Suspense in the Film North by North West Essay Example for Free

Suspense in the Film North by North West Essay Alfred Hitchcocks film North by Northwest reflects an extraordinary use of setting combined with brilliant camera angles and techniques to evoke emotion and to create suspense. The films exciting and suspenseful tone is established very quickly once Thornhill is shockingly kidnapped by two thugs while socializing with friends in a safe and public environment, the Plaza Hotel. Also the film displays scenes in which the viewer is placed in the point of view of the characters. Therefore immediate suspense and emotion captivates the audience because each viewer feels as though they are in the actual scene themselves. In addition, real-life suspense is created through the films brilliant use of various camera angles and techniques. The film has the ability to create suspense through its unique use of setting, combined with its remarkable use of different camera angles. In the beginning of the film, Thornhill is kidnapped while at a busy and sophisticated bar within the Plaza Hotel. This is a unique setting for a kidnapping scene because Thornhill is abducted while socializing with friends in a safe and familiar setting. Normally characters are kidnapped dark, scary, and secluded settings where there are no witnesses. Instead, Hitchcock does the opposite by having Thornhill kidnapped in a busy bar during the middle of the day. He is surprisingly captured in a comfortable setting that was very much a part of his upscale and suave lifestyle. Hence the audience is stunned to see the plot change dramatically during the most unexpected moment and setting. Along with great use of setting, the film also uses spectacular camera techniques in order to create suspense and evoke the emotions of the viewer. For instance, the crop field scene features an astonishing setting combined with great camera angles. The scene has a suspenseful tone because it occurs during a bright sunny day, and in the middle of an empty crop field. As Lang Thompson wrote in his article North by Northwest, The famous scene of Cary Grant being chased through a cornfield by a crop duster is an example of Hitchcock at his best. It came about because he had noticed that when most directors try to make a suspenseful scene they use tight alleyways, shadows barely visible through the gloom and the slow building tension of the approaching menace. So Hitchcock did exactly the opposite: full daylight, completely open space and a very fast machine. This desolate, eerie setting causes the viewer to feel sympathy for Thornhill, because one immediately realizes how vulnerable and alone he is during this moment. In addition to setting, suspense is created through the scenes use of point of view shots. This camera shot causes the plane to appear as though it is coming directly toward the screen as it gets gradually gets closer to Thornhill. As a result the audience feels as though they are being attacked by the plane themselves. The scenes eerie setting combined with excellent point of view shots create a tone of suspense that can rarely be matched. Hitchcock uses brilliant camera angles to heighten the amount of suspense and emotion. The excellent use of different camera angles can especially be seen during the scene in which both Thornhill and Eve depart from the train in Chicago. Throughout this scene, there are only a few subtle changes within each preceding camera angle and shot. Although the change between camera angles is subtle, they are astonishingly powerful because of the way they are able to create suspense and spur emotion. For example, when both Thornhill and Eve get off the train he camera is focused only on Eve while she walks toward the police officers. At this point the audience has no idea where Thornhill is, and have no idea if he had already been caught or not. Knowing this, Hitchcock decides to slowly change the focus off of Eve and onto the unknown transit employee carrying her bags. At this moment the camera is angled in a way that hides the facial identity of the transit employee. Immediately after , the viewer is slowly brought to the next camera angle which shockingly reveals that the unknown man is actually Thornhill disguised in uniform. The use of camera angles within this scene are truly brilliant, because for the first time the audience actually knows less about Thornhills situation than does Thornhill himself. In conclusion, it is quite evident that the unique settings, extravagant shooting techniques, and brilliant use of camera angling can all be credited for making North by Northwest one of the most suspenseful films ever made. One is immediately captivated by the films suspensful tone once Thornhill is surprisingly kidnapped during the most unexpected and unusual setting imaginable. In addition, the film has the ability to create an unrivaled feeling of suspense through its clever combination of both unique settings matched with extraordinary camera techniques. For example, point of view shots are used to increase the suspense and horror felt during the scene in which Thornhill is chased by a plane in a desolate crop field. Also the film is able to evoke fear and emotion by using different camera angles in order to hide or reveal things that are currently happening within the film. North by Northwest is truly a special film because it reflected an unrivaled tone of suspense by critiquing basic film elements.

History And Procedures of Gene Therapy Essay -- Biology Medical Biomed

The History And Procedures of Gene Therapy Abstract: Over the course of history there has been the idea of gene therapy has inspired many great scientists. The history of eugenics is important to the history of gene therapy because it is how gene therapy originated. Eugenics has driven many people to take extreme measures to try and make a â€Å"better human race†, this includes the Nazi party and the movement in the 1930’s inspired by Francis Galton. After that, research in eugenics continued and the human genome project sprung from the minds of scientists. After the inspiration of the human genome project scientists developed theories that gene therapy is possible. After a series of experiments that then failed, scientists were discouraged and the future of gene therapy is now being doubted. Gene therapy is an idea that has fascinated humans and scientists for centuries. Gene therapy theoretically can allow scientists to change the human genome and peoples DNA. Ideally, scientists wish to replace â€Å"bad genes† in your DNA that can potentially hurt you with good genes that will help you avoid any genetic ailment. In fact, all that scientists really want to accomplish is to replace our natural genes with unnatural ones. The idea and concept of gene therapy is not new to human history. On the contrary, gene therapy is a concept that has been fascinating the minds of many scientists and researchers over the span of many centuries. Although the idea of genes was first born during the times of Plato, the concept of gene therapy wasn’t really born until the late 1900’s. Mr. Francis Galton, who is the younger first cousin of Charles Darwin, had the idea that the human race could be improved according to the method of selective breeding.... ...The Last 80 Years in Primary Immunodeficiency: How Far Have We Come, How Far Need We Go† Shearer, William & Fischer, Alain Department of Pediatrics and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, and the Department of Allergy and Immunology. February 9, 2006. Accessed June 17. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WH4-4JS81T0-M&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&_alid=425456057&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6840&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000059598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4421&md5=b273338ae3c563bfa35380a2e42aff41 United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. This Is Superfund . Jan. 2000. 16 Aug. 2002 superfund/whatissf/sfguide.htm>. Lyon, Jeff & Corner, Peter. Altered Fates: Gene Therapy and the Retooling of Human Life. W. W. Norton & Company Inc. New York, New York. P. 1995.

Aztecs, Incas, and Toltecs

The Americas on the Eve of Invasion I. Introduction A. By 1500, Americas densely populated by Indians – misnomer – Columbus/Indies 1. Term has meaning only when used to apply to non-Indians B. Mesoamerica and Andean heartland 1. Imperial states in place when Europe arrives 2. Few areas influenced by two main centers 3. Areas that developed independently II. Postclassic Mesoamerica A. Introduction 1. Toltecs/Aztecs replace Mayas of 8th century CE a. By 15th century Aztecs created extensive empire – war, religion, agrarian 2. Downfall of Mayans – Teotihuacan a. Nomads from North come down . Toltec Culture – 968 established capital Tula 1. Sedentary/agrarian peoples with militaristic ethic 2. Cult of sacrifice/war 3. Aztecs saw Toltecs as givers of civilizationB. The Toltec Heritage 1. Leader Topilitzin followed Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent 2. Empire spread over much of central Mexico 3. 1000 Conquered Chichen Itza – Mayans under cont rol of Toltecs 4. Toltec influence northward a. Trade turquoise with American Southwest b. How far – to Mississippi/Ohio – debatable evidence 1. Stepped temples – Monk’s Mound 2. Ritual sacrifice 3. pottery 4. Social stratification . Large city – Cahokia could handle 30,000 people C. The Aztec Rise to Power – eagle with serpent on cactus 1. Geography – aquatic environment – chinampas a. Aztecs/Mexicas won control of lake b. Nomadic tribes or agricultural culture 2. Political structure – centralized city with tributary city-states 3. Military – tough warriors/fanatic followers of religion 4. 1428 emerged as independent power D. The Aztec Social Contract 1. Subject peoples a. Pay tribute, surrender lands, military service b. King civil power/god on earth 2. Stratified society a. Histories rewritten 3.Human sacrifice – cult of military class supplying war captives as sacrifices E. Religion and the Ideology of Conquest 1. Incorporated features from past Mesoamerican religions a. Little distinction between world of gods and natural world b. Deities – fire, rain, water, corn, sky, sun – pantheon 1. Gods of fertility/agriculture 2. Creator deities 3. Warfare and sacrifice c. Female form for all gods 2. Yearly festivals/ceremonies a. Expansive calendar 3. Sacrifice – to energize the sun god – needed nourishment of human blood a. Types and frequency/degree changed with Aztecs – borrowed from Toltec . religious conviction vs. political control 4. Religious questions – afterlife, good life, do gods exist 5. Art has flowers/birds/song and blood F. Tenochtitlan: The Foundation of Heaven 1. Metropois – central zone of palaces/whitewashed temples 2. Adobe brick residential districts 3. Larger houses for nobility 4. Zoos, gardens for king 5. Geographically connected to island by four causeways 6. Calpulli ruled neighborhoods G. Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire 1. Mass population needed to be fed a. Tribute b. Irrigated agriculture – chinampas – floating islands 1. 20,000 acres 2.High crop yields – 4 times a year – corn/maize 2. Trade a. Regular intervals to market b. Barter or cacao beans/gold for currency c. Pochteca – long distance trade 3. State controlled distribution of tribute a. Primarily redistributed to nobility III. Aztec Society in Transition A. Widening Social Gulf 1. Life based on calpulli (neighborhood) groups a. Governed by council of family heads 2. Nobility came from heads of calpullis 3. Military leaders based on success in taking captives a. Ritual warfare – uniforms 4. As society grew, widening social disparity – no longer egalitarian (hmmm†¦where have I seen this pattern before? a. Scribes, artisans, healers between peasants and nobility 5. But†¦competition not between social classes, but between corporate groups B. Overcoming Technologic al Constraints 1. Role of women – relatively equal, but subordinate to men a. Peasant women – fields, child-rearing b. Revered as weavers c. Polygamy among nobility, monogamy among poor d. Could inherit property 2. Limits of technology a. Women – six hours a day grinding corn/maize 1. Couldn’t be freed from 30-40 hours of preparing food 3. Controlled vast number of people amazingly – 1. 5 million to 25 million C.A Tribute Empire 1. Most power in hands of Aztec ruler and chief advisor a. â€Å"elected† from best siblings of royal family 2. As time passed, ritual sacrifice/military dominated all elements of life 3. City-states – as long as they made tribute – they could have autonomy 4. Weaknesses a. Rise of nobles altered dynamics b. Society based on system of terror 5. By 1500, Aztec society was in the down, military period – height far earlier IV. Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas A. Inca Empire – Twantinsuyu †“ highly centralized 1. Integrated various ethnic groups 2. Irrigated agriculture 3.Incorporated elements of previous civilizations – agriculture/religion/metallurgy 4. Introduction a. Genius for state organization/bureaucratic control b. When central authority broke down, regional leaders took over i. war between rival chiefdoms B. The Inca Rise to Power 1. Inca â€Å"ruler† – military alliances and campaigns to take over 2. Subsequent rulers with names you’ll never remember expanded and consolidated land a. Between 9 and 13 million people under rule C. Conquest and Religion 1. Reason for conquest a. economic gain b. political power 2. religion – cult of ancestors a. deceased rulers mummified . split inheritance a. leader’s power goes to successor b. leader’s property goes to male family 4. political and social life related to religion a. holy shrines – stones, mountains, rivers, caves, tombs – huacas 1. Prayers/human sacrifices b. Temple of the Sun – center of state religion D. The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule 1. Leader/inca considered a god 2. Court also temple 3. Four provinces ruled by governor, power then divided further a. Local rulers could remain autonomous if they were loyal 4. All nobles played role in state bureaucracy a. Nobles gained privileges, had a lot to lose b.Could wear large ear spools – orejones – gee thanks 5. Spread language – unified 6. System of roads with way stations – tambos – one day apart 7. For labor, people benefited from large, expensive work projects – only central gov’t can provide a. State-sponsored irrigation made cultivation possible 8. Instead of tribute, they wanted labor 9. Relation between men and wome a. Needed to stay close b. Women link to the moon 10. Downfall a. Marriage alliances created rivals for the throne – ahhh†¦that whole succession problem rears its ugly head E. Inca Cul tural Achievements 1. Art – built on styles of predecessor peoples . Metallurgy – gold/silver/bronze, copper b. Pottery/cloth 2. But†¦No system of writing†¦No wheel 2. Math a. Knotted strings quipo to count 3. Infrastructure – greatest achievement a. land/water management b. extensive road systems c. Architecture and public buildings d. Terraced farming on steep slopes F. Comparing Incas and Aztecs aka â€Å"if you forget everything else, remember this† 1. But first, before we get started†¦look at the words used in this section a. No really†¦look at the words used b. They start with words like â€Å"although†, or â€Å"both† c. It’s just beautiful how the reader can make connections . In fact, my eyes are filling a little misty a. This is one of the best Comparative Analysis Essays I’ve ever seen in your Stearns book, and after 14 chapters of taking notes, I’m starting to i. feel like Stearns is like a brother, an older brother, but a brother ii. but†¦I digress†¦let’s get back to it 3. Similarities a. Represented military and imperial organization success b. Controlled circulation of goods c. Agricultural based with a food surplus d. Nobles became more important than local leaders e. Allowed for diversity as long as authority f. Empires acquired by conquest of sedentary peoples . Belief systems, cosmology similar roots h. Both couldn’t survive shock of conquest i. Your book says they do survive the conquest, but I beg to differ, they were split up into small little regions ii. But, I will accept that they carried on the culture 4. However â€Å"We cannot overlook the great DIFFERENCES† a. Aztecs have better trade and markets b. First, there quite similar, variations of same system c. Metallurgy, writing systems, hierarchy i. Ummm†¦book†¦could you give us some specifics d. Overall†¦this section does a horrible job discussing differenc es V. Other Indians A.How to differentiate – based on degree of social order/material culture/political structure 1. Diversity based on geographical factors 2. Not all agriculture based B. How many Indians? 1. If you guessed 14,375,421, you were wrong 2. Between 8. 4 million and 112 million – Gee thanks†¦that’s real close i. Numbers changed due to a. Understanding of impact of disease b. archaeological studies c. improved estimates of agricultural techniques 3. Europe about the same size as the Americas – population wise C. Differing Cultural Patterns 1. Basically†¦it’s hard to say there is just one type of â€Å"Indian† . Some hunted, some gathered, some farmed, some did a mixture ii. Some had huge class divisions, some were more egalitarian iii. Most lived in small kin-ship based groups 2. North America extremely diverse i. Some lived in cliffs, towns or teepees ii. Agricultural unless farming too tough, then hunter gatherers 3. Similar to Europe/Asia i. Kin based societies ii. Communal owning of property iii. Women subordinate, but some had high positions 4. Part of ecological system, not controlling it â€Å"You think you own whatever land you land on†¦earth is just a dead thing you can claim, but I know†¦Ã¢â‚¬ D. American Indian Diversity in World Context 1. Paradox – wealthy/accomplished civilizations, but â€Å"primitive† to Europe 2. But†¦how much is the difference based on lack of†¦ i. wheel ii. large pack animals iii. metal tools iv. written language 3. They developed, just differently E. Global Connections 1. Isolation prevented diffusion of ideas – it’s not bad, just the reality 2. Lacks world religions, large domesticated animals (yes†¦they had guinea pigs) 3. Not immune to diseases 4. Lacked ironworking F. I’m tired, and I’m going to bed

Underground and Sublime: How the Subterranean Context of a City Embodies a Unique Spatial Experience

Underground and sublime â€Å"The high gained from such subterraneous geographic expedition is so bally intense, there’s no demand for a goblet in this wonderland. Unequalled by anything on the surface degree, the bowls of the metropolis are a sight behold.† ( Graphotism, 1999 ) Modern infinite, in context of the metropolis and the experience of a metropolis inhabitant, has been reduced to a generalised position that can be described as ‘verticality’ . Gaston Bachelard ( 1969 ) presents his theory on verticalness through the mutual opposition of the basement and the loft, which in bend brings unequivocal penetrations into the really different phenomenological waies the imaginativeness perceives ; the House in our eyes is a concentrated building, constructed with upward impulse. It becomes an independent volume which provides us with a psychologically concrete nature. But within the house, infinite is opposed by the reason of the Attic and the unreason of the basement. If the House serves as a metaphor for a City, the rules are the same in that the Attic is representative of the rational attack taken to urban spacial design. Henri Lefebvre remarks in his book The Production of Space, â€Å"Verticality, and the independency of volumes with regard to the original land and it’s distinctive features, are, exactly, produced† . Equally long as we adhere to Verticality being the cardinal axis of the urban environment, our eyes lift above the immediate specificity of district on which it is built, ensuing in a homogeneous built environment, therefore an abstraction of world. The basement on the other manus, in the instance ‘The Underground’ , is perceived as a lost dimension, one which is defined by abstraction, but Bachelard points out that the phenomenology of populating a ‘cellar’ infinite places the dweller in a harmonious province with subterraneous forces and the unreason of digging. The position of a metropolis inhabitant on their immediate environment, one time populating an belowground infinite, is returned and further deepened, to the point that the imaginativeness is limitless within the foremost ‘dark entity’ . The essay will research what, why and how the subterraneous context of a metropolis embodies a alone spacial experience through an question into the Sublime. The relation of Sublime theory to civic substructure embedded in the metropolis resistance will supply the evidences to oppugn whether the thoughts of the Sublime are relevant, particularly in the instance of infinite designed without architectural theoretical purposes. Can infinite be more strictly empyreal if it isn’t deliberately designed to be empyreal? What â€Å"Whatever is fitted in any kind to excite the thoughts of hurting, and danger, that is to state, whatever is in any kind awful, or is familiar about awful objects or operates in a mode correspondent to terror is a beginning of the sublime ; that is, it is productive of the strongest emotion the head is capable of feeling.† ( Burke, 1990 ) Bachelard ( 1969 ) uses a short narration to explicate his theory on how belowground infinite ab initio induces a sense of fright in the topic provided by C G Jung in his book Modern Man in hunt of a Soul. â€Å" Here the witting Acts of the Apostless like a adult male who, hearing a leery noise in the basement, hastes to the Attic and, happening no burglars at that place decides, accordingly, that the noise was pure imaginativeness. In world, this prudent adult male did non make bold venture into the cellar.† The Underground is depicted as the more awful in the comparing of elevated infinite and subterraneous infinite due to the degrees of witting idea used to apologize fright. In which, brings us to a cardinal trait of the Sublime. Fear is an apprehensiveness of hurting or decease, therefore rendering the organic structure nullified of its powers of moving and concluding when subjected enter the resistance. ( Burke, 1990 ) Yet this poses a paradox when we consider different scenarios that involve the rite of come ining an belowground infinite. In some occasions, for case during wartime, adult male seeks the protection of the resistance to avoid hurting or decease. The sand trap outlook takes a figure of distinguishable signifiers, from which it is deserving noticing on their deficiency of basic design considerations including comfort, airing and visible radiation. This natural disposition towards subterranean brooding roots from the earliest signifier of shelter for adult male, the cave, and yet even now the design of belowground sand traps isn’t clearly different from a of course happening cave, proposing that we besides portion a sense of security alongside fright. There is besides the passion of wonder, even though it is the simplest of our passions, which can overmaster our frights and coerce us to follow the way to find. â€Å"When danger or strivings press excessively early, they are incapable of giving any delectation, and are merely awful ; but at certain distances, and with certain alterations, they may be, and they are delightful† . ( Burke, 1990 ) In kernel, it is the thoughts of hurting that are much more powerful than pleasance, therefore the thoughts of the empyreal emerge through awful experience, but necessarily our brushs result in pleasance. The journey undertaken by human existences with the wonder to dig deep into the unknown, the stairss taken to make a finish, particularly into deepnesss of the belowground apart from any above land spacial experience as the topic is confined from all about. A longing for the safety of the surface indicates feelings of anxiousness and claustrophobia, which could hold desperate effects, but it is precisely this fright that accordingly produces the extreme highs which will ever be attractive to the topic. ( Carlyle, 2000 ) Why â€Å"Adjusting to the extremes of silence and deafening noise, bright corridors and flip black stairwells and basically developing an confidant cognition of a labyrinthine system in which were one time ignored [ go ] gaps to underground frontiers.† ( Carlyle, 2000 ) The rite of traveling belowground entirely is empyreal ; as we descend into darkness our senses are aroused, awakened and heightened. Our attending to minute inside informations is increased within a confined infinite, like the sound of a rat scurrying along the tracks of the London Underground ; the physical boundaries are existent, seting the senses under unbelievable emphasis, go forthing the imaginativeness to widen into the overpowering darkness bring oning a strong sense of fright over normally undistinguished events. †When we know the full extent of any danger, when we accustom our eyes to it, a great trade of the apprehensiveness vanishes.† ( Burke, 1990 ) These all being corollaries of our human nature, we are nonvoluntary to these effects which in all facets are linked to Sublime Theory. Edmund Burke in his book A Philosophic Enquiry into the Beginning of our Ideas on the Sublime and the Beautiful, the distinctive features of the sublime are set out in parts and subdivision clear uping the theory of our passions and their genuine sourced. In relation to architecture, he supplies concise direction and review of the nature of empyreal infinite, but it is the direct personal experience and feelings he describes, the beginning of the sublime, which I endeavor to compare with the phenomenology of Underground infinite. â€Å"Stepping outside our prearranged traffic forms and established finishs, we find a metropolis laced with liminality, with border districts cutting across its bosom and making into its sky. We find a 1000 disappearing points, each unique, each alive, each pregnant with wealths and admirations and time.† ( Cook, 2009 ) Modernity has brought a huge clandestine underworld into metropolis degrees, cluttered with wrestling conveyance tunnels, telecommunication lines, the mail rail, sand traps and vaults. All of which are excavated from the Earth, falling into darkness, off from any beginning of natural visible radiation, which incurs that all light is unnaturally substituted. Shadows engulf infinite, making these disappearing points that Michael Cook, an urban adventurer who runs the website Vanishing Point, talks about in Geoff Manaugh’s The BLDG BLOG Book. The vanishing point besides refers to a point of eternity, which in Sublime footings refers to a delicious horror. Upon looking down a conveyance tunnel, in belowground civic architecture, there is no light lighting the terminal, there is merely darkness, which presents the pheonomenon of eternity, therefore our imaginativeness is free to widen to our panic, or pleasance. Ideas are able to reiterate in our head about boundlessly, like  "if you hold up a consecutive pole, with your oculus to one terminal, it will look extended to a length about incredible.† ( Burke, 1990 ) So even though the existent dimensions of an belowground tunnel make a sense of claustrophobia, they besides comprehend enormousness in the head of the object, non merely through the semblance of eternity but besides the cognition of the labyrinthine system that they inhabit. At this point, the entryway and the flight seem inexplicable, but the consequence of eternity on the imaginativeness switches hurting to pleasance. Greatness of the dimension has a powerful impact on the sublime, particularly in consideration to architecture. But it can be perceived in many ways, much of them opposing. For illustration Norberg-Schulz in his book Genius Loci describes â€Å"The Mountain, therefore, belongs to the Earth, but it rises toward the sky. It is ‘high’ , it is close to heaven† , and the cosmic relation it has in connexion Eden and Earth, connoting that the monumental graduated table of a mountain making out to the Eden is genuinely empyreal. On the other terminal of the spectrum, Burke explains the degree of minuteness’ mentioning to such things as the ‘infinite divisibility of matter’ . We are every bit confounded by smallness as enormousness. Although in footings of belowground infinite, illustriousness of dimension has its most dramatic consequence through alternate significances. Vastness of extent, in footings of length, tallness and deepness in peculiar, exaggerate perceptual experiences of the sheer measure of such infinites, even though we can non see them, which has a profound consequence on the head. Once we explore them for ourselves our civic agreeableness map are made tangible, and we know that, â€Å"Every clip we turn on the pat, draw the concatenation, pick up the telephone, there is an belowground motion ; a gurgle of H2O, an impulse along a wire.† ( Trench & A ; Hillman, 1985 ) As the beds are peeled away the venas of the metropolis are revealed, seting the belowground kingdom on a graduated table similar to the starry heavens in its impressiveness. ‘The great profuseness of things which are splendid’ , creates the widespread vision of the sublime. ( Burke, 1990 ) The most surpassing property to Underground infinite is darkness. Darkness being the most productive of the sublime, and the Underground being unable to tackle the power of the Sun, it descends into a fearful province overwhelmed by darkness. The theory of the empyreal stresses the importance that when you enter a edifice, to do objects most dramatic, they should be every bit different as possible to the object we have been most familiar with, which implies that our ocular variety meats must be put under the most stress to heighten our perceptual experiences of the sublime. ( Burke, 1990 ) This can be farther assisted by the nature of shadows which bring a degree of obscureness into drama. Burke uses characters of fright in human existences ; â€Å"how greatly dark adds to our apprehension, in all instances of danger, and how much the impressions of shades and hobs, of which none can organize clear thoughts, affect heads, which gave recognition to the popular narratives refering such kinds of beings.† Shadows reinstate the feeling of presence, but in a confined infinite lucidity is scarce and they become abstracted in the oculus of the topic, instantly striking panic in their bosom. ( Burke, 1990 ) Other than this type of visible radiation that may make a sublime atmosphere, the antonym of darkness, that is light that obliterates all objects through its pure appendage, will hold the same consequence as complete darkness. An illustration of this is a bolt of Lightning. It moves with such quickness and brightness, that our senses are overcome. Therefore, upon come ining a infinite a speedy passage from visible radiation to darkness or frailty versa, recreates this consequence in an atmospheric environment. ( Burke, 1990 ) Apart from the effects visible radiation has on the oculus of the topic, it is the combination of vision and sound which achieves the highest grade of the sublime, and is relevant to the design of tunnels. A tunnel is constructed by uninterrupted repeat which sight perceives as one point multiplied to eternity. â€Å"The oculus vibrating in all its parts must near near to the nature of what causes hurting, and accordingly must bring forth an thought of the sublime.† This is besides relevant to the sound of the Underground. Within the confines of all environing solid stuff walls, sound reverberates around the infinite, garnering impulse and arrives at the topic with inordinate volume, which has the ability to overmaster the psyche, suspending it in action and to make full it with panic. ( Burke, 1990 ) How â€Å"The tree drawn on the land by their shadows made the most profound feeling on me. This image grew in my imaginativeness. I so saw everything that was the most drab in nature. What did I see? The mass if objects detached in black against a visible radiation of utmost pallor.† ( Vidler, 1992 ) Modern architecture, particularly in the attack to belowground architecture, has often attempted to free itself of the threatening darkness which is so imperative to the theory of the sublime and voluminous in the nature of belowground infinite. This is due to a modernist theory led by Le Corbusier in the 20th century, which takes a stance on urban design as a corporate. Dark seemed to be a parasite to architecture and it was thought that transparence would â€Å"eradicate the sphere of myth, intuition, dictatorship and above all irrationality.† Architects concentrated on opening up metropoliss to circulation, visible radiation and air, labeling the profession as the ‘light-bringers’ when it came to planing belowground infinite in peculiar. ( Vidler, 1992 ) A specific illustration of this modernist theory being apparent in current architectural pattern is the Canary Wharf London Underground Station by Foster+Partners. Which I will compare with another modern-day resistance station, the Westminster Extension by Michael Hopkins to underground infinite taken with mention to sublimate theory. Canary Wharf London Underground Station is by far the largest station to be built in the recent Jubilee Line Extension act due to the context it uses, that being the former West India dock, therefore it benefits from the handiness of infinite. The sheer size of the infinite advocates illustriousness of dimension, yet its horizontal proportions don’t comply with empyreal theory. The edifice boasts its length bing to the tallness of the Canary Wharf Tower to Burke ( 1990 ) â€Å"an hundred paces of even land will ne'er work such an consequence as a tower an 100s paces tall.† Although the uniformity to plan, with equal proportions and design based on insistent entities, enhances the subject’s experience of enormousness within infinite. It besides shows similarities with the architecture of Gothic Cathedrals in that the technology on show is evocative of the winging buttress. In the survey of visible radiation and design inside informations, the station doesn’t seem to encompass any facets of natural belowground infinite by throw outing darkness from every cranny in the design. First of wholly, the chief focal point comprises of 3 swelling glass canopies whose premier map is to pull daylight deep into the infinite. But the dimensions of the infinite prevent these from holding a important consequence all twenty-four hours long, therefore the acceptance of bright unreal lighting reduces any transitional effects between the exterior and interior to about nil. In comparing, the station at Westminster begins with a significant descent into the deepnesss of the resistance, which has a ritualistic journey reminiscent of falling into a immense cavern. The difference here is in the dimensions of the infinite which is of verticalness, about falling off from street degree, past the subterraneous substructure, into the shadows of the underworld. This is augmented by the honestness of its building which contributes to the dramatic ambiance through sheer hardiness of technology. The unreal lighting used has been smartly situated in order to move functionally and atmospherically. The visible radiations act like a beacon that directs riders out of the station, as if they are returning to the daytime of street degree, but they besides create an astonishing atmosphere by projecting infinite consists of criss-crossing stations and beams between the falling shafts, which catch the visible radiation in apposition, which besides conflicts with the framing o f a bird-eye position on the station floor. Percepts of the infinite are improbably phenomenological, prosecuting the topic with the architecture and successfully switching the position from street degree to the resistance. In my sentiment the rules in which Michael Hopkins Architects have based their architecture upon, to a great extent implement the theories of the sublime into a rationalized design tantrum to function as a functional infinite, but besides an improbably atmospheric experience for the topic. On the contrary, Foster+ Partners’ attack to belowground infinite tantrums in with the to the full rational attack of modernist theory, which alternatively of tackling the qualities of visible radiation and rites that go in tandem with the experience of the resistance, transparence has claimed its triumph. Thereby, through an extended concurrence between empyreal theory and belowground infinite, in peculiar the civic architecture of metropolis degrees, many differentiations have been made that nexus empyreal theory to infinites that we have discussed, doing it enormously relevant. What distinguishes the infinites I have talked about from Architecture is its irrational nature in the fact that Earth is excavated to make a functional infinite. There is no seeable form to take into history when noticing on aesthetics of belowground infinite as one is surrounded by Earth. But it is exactly this that makes the irrational infinite of resistance more strictly empyreal than Architecture that tries to animate what irrational infinite has. Even though Westminster station applies much detailing with purpose to work empyreal traits, it will ne'er transgress the threshold, due merely to the fact that the rational procedure designers apply to plan, retreats from organic idea. The design of civic comf ortss is apparently free from rational idea because there is no demand to take the human experience into consideration. Therefore, it may stand as its ain separate entity, suspended in the resistance, beautiful because it has been designed to be beautiful.